Here’s a refresher on reading disorders, with a focus on dyslexia, along with a list of assessments commonly used to identify reading challenges.

<h2>Understanding and Assessing Reading Disorders Among Students</h2>
<p>
 “One in five children in the U.S. have learning and attention issues such as dyslexia 
 and ADHD, yet…<strong>48 percent</strong> of parents believe incorrectly that children will outgrow 
 these brain-based difficulties, and <strong>33 percent</strong> of educators say that sometimes what 
 people call a learning disability is really just laziness” (<a href="https://www.ncld.org/news/newsroom/the-state-of-ld-understanding-the-1-in-5/" target="_blank">National Center for 
 Learning Disabilities</a>). In addition to being misunderstood by parents and teachers, 
 kids with learning disabilities are also more likely 
 to <strong>experience low self-esteem, repeat a grade, get 
 suspended, or drop out</strong> (<a href="https://www.ncld.org/news/newsroom/the-state-of-ld-understanding-the-1-in-5/" target="_blank">NCLD</a>). 
</p>
</br>
<p> That’s why it’s critical for school psychologists and other educational specialists 
  to recognize and understand these types of learning differences. Fortunately, <strong>early 
  intervention</strong> from adults with the right skills and training can work wonders for 
  individuals with reading disorders. <strong>School psychologists are uniquely positioned 
  to serve in this capacity.</strong> They can enlist the help of a team, including speech-language 
  pathologists, special education teachers, 
  paraprofessionals, reading intervention specialists, counselors, parents and others. 
</p>
</br>
<p> Since school psychologists are responsible for <strong>evaluating students for reading 
  challenges or learning disabilities</strong>, they are at the forefront of intervention. 
  This opportunity can reset the trajectory of an individual’s lifetime. Imagine the 
  different possible outcomes between a child who receives highly 
  individualized attention and the very best interventions and a child who does not.  
</p>
<br>
<p> Here, we’ll provide:</p>
<ul>
  <li> A refresher on reading disorders, with a focus on dyslexia </li>
  <li> A note about the comorbidity of psychiatric disorders and reading disorders </li>
  <li> An overview of the school psychologist’s role in identifying and assessing reading disorders </li>
  <li> Assessments school psychologists commonly use to evaluate for reading disorders </li>
</ul>

<h2>Reading Disorders</h2>
<h3>What is dyslexia?</h3>
<p>Various disorders can affect reading. The most common is <strong>dyslexia</strong>, which affects as 
  many as 43.5 million Americans (<a href="https://www.ldonline.org/ld-topics/reading-dyslexia/dyslexia-what-brain-research-reveals-about-reading" target="_blank">LDOnline</a>). Dyslexia is a specific learning 
  disorder that affects word recognition and language skills, including reading. </p>

<h3>What is the DSM-5 criteria for specific learning disorder (which includes dyslexia)?</h3>
<p>To be diagnosed with a <strong>specific learning disorder</strong>, an 
  individual must meet these four criteria (<a href="https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/specific-learning-disorder/what-is-specific-learning-disorder" target="_blank">American Psychiatric Association</a>):
</p>

<ul>
  <li> Have difficulties in at least one of the following areas for at least six months 
    despite targeted help:
    <ul>
      <li> Difficulty reading (e.g., inaccurate, slow and only with much effort) </li>
      <li> Difficulty understanding the meaning of what is read </li>
      <li> Difficulty with spelling</li>
      <li> Difficulty with written expression (e.g., problems with grammar, punctuation or organization)</li>
      <li> Difficulty understanding number concepts, number facts or calculation</li>
      <li> Difficulty with mathematical reasoning (e.g., applying math concepts or solving math problems)</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li> Have academic skills substantially below what is expected for the child’s 
  age and cause problems in school, work or everyday activities.</li>
<li> The difficulties start during school age, even if some people don’t experience 
  significant problems until adulthood (when academic, work and day-to-day demands are 
  greater).
</li>
<li> Learning difficulties are not due to other conditions, such as intellectual disability, 
  vision or hearing problems, a neurological condition (e.g., pediatric stroke), 
  adverse conditions such as economic or environmental disadvantage, lack of 
  instruction, or difficulties speaking/understanding the language.
</li>
</ul>
<br>
<p>Dyslexia has been misunderstood as mixing, reversing or flipping words. 
  It also has been mistakenly associated with low intelligence or the lack of a 
  desire to learn. These misunderstandings 
  can make school particularly challenging for those with the disorder. 
</p>
<br>
<p>Most individuals with dyslexia struggle to identify the separate speech sounds 
  within words and how letters represent those sounds. They may also have difficulties with 
  spelling, writing, or pronouncing words 
  (<a href="https://dyslexiaida.org/dyslexia-basics-2/" target="_blank">International Dyslexia Association</a>).
</p>
<br>
<p>Signs of dyslexia can include (<a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/dyslexia/symptoms-causes/syc-20353552" target="_blank">Mayo Clinic</a>):
</p>

<ul>
   <li> Late talking </li>
  <li>	Learning new words slowly </li>
  <li>	Problems forming words correctly, such as reversing sounds in words or confusing words that sound alike  </li>
  <li>	Problems remembering or naming letters, numbers and colors </li>
  <li>	Difficulty learning nursery rhymes or playing rhyming games </li>
  <li>	Reading well below the expected level for age  </li>
  <li>	Problems processing and understanding what is heard </li>
  <li>	Difficulty finding the right word or forming answers to questions </li>
  <li>	Problems remembering the sequence of things </li>
  <li>	Difficulty seeing (and occasionally hearing) similarities and differences in letters and words </li>
  <li>	Inability to sound out the pronunciation of an unfamiliar word </li>
  <li>	Difficulty spelling </li>
  <li>	Spending an unusually long time completing tasks that involve reading or writing </li>
  <li>	Avoiding activities that involve reading </li>
  <li>	Difficulty reading, including reading aloud </li>
  <li>	Slow and labor-intensive reading and writing </li>
  <li>	Problems spelling </li>
  <li>	Avoiding activities that involve reading </li>
  <li>	Mispronouncing names or words, or problems retrieving words </li>
  <li>	Difficulty summarizing a story </li>
  <li>	Trouble learning a foreign language </li>
  <li> Difficulty doing math word problems </li>
</ul>

<h2>Other Reading Disorders</h2>
<h3>What other disorders can impact reading?</h3>
<p> As mentioned above, reading disorders aren’t limited to dyslexia. Various labels 
  apply to reading problems including reading disability, reading disorder, specific 
  reading disorder and specific comprehension deficit. According to the 
  <a href="https://www.asha.org/practice-portal/clinical-topics/written-language-disorders/disorders-of-reading-and-writing/" target="_blank">
  American Speech-Language-Hearing Association</a>, other reading disorders (in addition to dyslexia) 
  include hyperlexia or reading comprehension deficit, dysgraphia or writing process 
  deficit, dysorthography or spelling deficit, and oral and written language learning 
  disability. 
  Students may have combined deficiencies in various areas, such as:</p>

<ul>
  <li> <strong>Hyperlexia</strong>, also called <strong>reading comprehension deficit</strong> 
  or specific comprehension deficit. Individuals with hyperlexia may struggle 
    with word recognition skills, reading fluency, and social, cognitive, or linguistic 
    skills.
  </li>

   <li><strong>Dysgraphia</strong>, which includes <strong>writing process deficit</strong>, 
   refers to difficulty with language or spelling-based aspects of written expression. 
   It can occur with dyslexia or other learning disabilities. </li>

    <li><strong>Dysorthography</strong>, or <strong>spelling deficit</strong>, refers to difficulty encoding phonological 
information and can impact reading and writing. </li>

    <li><strong> Oral and written language learning disability</strong> refers to deficits 
    in spoken and written language that affect reading, spelling and writing. </li>
</ul>

<h2>Comorbidity of Psychiatric Disorders with Reading Disorders</h2>
<p> School psychologists are uniquely situated to be on guard for students who may have a 
  <strong>psychiatric disorder and a reading disorder</strong>. Research shows these comorbidities may not 
  be understood entirely in mental health settings and points out the 
  importance of <strong>integrating adequate treatment</strong> for students with 
  comorbidities. 
</p>
<br>
<p>In <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00101/full" target="_blank">Frontiers in Psychiatry</a>, 
Hendren et al. point out, "Assessment and intervention 
  for RD may be delayed or absent in children with frequently co-occurring mental disorders 
  not fully responding to treatment in both school and mental health settings … 
  In addition to the risk for academic struggle and social, emotional, and behavioral 
  problems, those with RD often show early evidence of combined or intertwined … attention 
  deficit hyperactivity disorder, anxiety and depression, disruptive, 
  impulse-control, and conduct disorders, autism spectrum disorders, and other SLDs.” 
</p>
</br>
<p> The researchers recommend that when evaluating students for reading disorders, 
  the diagnostician carefully consider primary and secondary diagnoses, for example, 
  “whether a child presents with ADHD and has a 
  secondary difficulty in reading or presents with RD that results in inattention.” 
</p>
<h2>The School Psychologist’s Role in Assessing Reading Disorders</h2>
<p> Procedures for evaluating students for reading disorders vary within states and 
  districts. School psychologists should always 
  follow the guidelines for their situation. Generally, school psychologists will:
</p>
<ol>
  <li><strong> Perform initial assessments.</strong> School psychologists may observe 
  students in the classroom or administer quick evaluations based 
    on referrals from teachers, parents or other educational professionals.</li> 

    <li><strong>Conduct comprehensive assessments.</strong> Once a child has been 
    identified as having a potential reading disorder, school psychologists will lead a 
    formal evaluation that includes a review of history, reading and 
language assessments, analysis of work samples, and data collection. </li>

    <li><strong>Analyze data to arrive at a diagnosis.</strong> Next, the school 
    psychologist will analyze the data, compare it to grade-level benchmarks and note 
    discrepancies. They’ll then arrive at and document a diagnosis and 
    recommendations for intervention.
    </li>

  <li><strong>Collaborate with the student’s team to develop an intervention plan.</strong> 
  The school psychologist will then work with support staff to tailor an individualized 
  plan with strategies and accommodations to support the student's needs. </li>

</ol>
<h2>Assessments for Reading Disorders</h2>
<h3>What are some assessments school psychologists commonly use to test for reading disorders like dyslexia?</h3>
<ul>
  <li> Phonological Awareness Literacy Screening (PALS) </li>
  <li> Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (CTOPP)</li>
  <li> Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests</li>
  <li> Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE)</li>
  <li> Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS)</li>
  <li> 	Gray Oral Reading Tests (GORT) </li>
  <li> Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT) </li>
  <li> Nelson-Denny Reading Test </li>
  <li> Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN) Assessments</li>
  <li> Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)</li>
  <li> Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales </li>
  <li> Test of Written Language (TOWL) </li>
  <li> Test of Orthographic Competence (TOC)</li>
  <li> Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals (CELF) </li>
</ul>
<br>
<p>Additionally, school psychologists will typically use:</p>
<ul>
  <li> Observation of students during classroom activities, one-on-one interactions, 
    and other learning situations </li>
  <li> Informal assessments, like asking students to read aloud or retell a story </li>
  <li> Parent and teacher input via interviews, questionnaires, and surveys </li>
</ul>
</br>
<p>We hope this resource on dyslexia and other reading disorders is a useful addition to your school 
  psychologist toolkit. To discover where your specialized skills are needed most nationwide, browse 
  our <a href="https://www.crosscountry.com/education" target="_blank">school psychologist jobs</a> 
  now.
</p>

School Psychologist Resources: Dyslexia, SLD, and Other Reading Disorders